The Flat Winding — a revolution in permanent waving

Part I: The State of Hair Waving before 1924

To grasp fully the revolutionary significance of Josef Mayer's invention of the flat winding in 1924, it is essential to understand the technological and cultural context in which it arose. The early 1920s marked a turning point at which a radical change in fashion — the rise of the short haircut — collided with the limits of existing hairdressing technique. The prevailing method of permanent waving at the time was not only cumbersome and dangerous; for the new fashion it was simply unusable. This created a technological vacuum that urgently demanded an innovative solution. Josef Mayer's work was not merely an improvement; it was a necessary response to a crisis triggered by fashion.

1.1 The Search for the Lasting Curl: From Antiquity to the Electrical Age

The desire to transform straight hair into lasting curls or waves has been a central theme of the art of hair for millennia. As early as antiquity the Greeks used the so-called kalamistro, a heated rod, to shape curls. Over the centuries various methods were developed, but these were mostly based on mechanical action or temporary heat, and their results rarely survived the next hair wash. A decisive step in the professionalisation of heat styling came in 1872, when the Parisian hairdresser Marcel Grateau perfected ondulation with a specially shaped, heated waving iron. This technique produced the characteristic "Marcel waves" and established heat styling as a firm component of the hairdressing craft. The decisive drawback, however, remained: the artful coiffure was ephemeral and had to be renewed regularly.

The turn from the 19th to the 20th century brought a transformative force into the salons: electricity. This new source of energy revolutionised the craft and enabled the development of novel appliances that eased the working day and created new services. Among the earliest and most important innovations was the electric hair dryer, which around the turn of the century was introduced as a mass-produced article by companies such as AEG and considerably accelerated the drying of the hair. Electrification created the technological basis for the next great leap in hair reshaping: the invention of a truly permanent wave.

1.2 The Nessler Revolution: The Birth of the "Permanent Wave" (1906)

The breakthrough was achieved by the German hairdresser Karl Ludwig Nessler (who internationally called himself Charles Nestle). On 8 October 1906 in London he presented the first working method for producing a permanent wave, which he later patented. His invention, known as the "hot wave," was a complex chemical-thermal treatment that fundamentally altered the hair.

The technical process was elaborate and, for its time, highly technological. First, the strands of hair were soaked in an alkaline solution, such as borax, in order to soften the hair structure and make it malleable. The prepared strands were then wound, from the scalp downward, in a spiral winding around metal rods projecting perpendicularly from the head. Each of these rollers was then heated individually with electrically operated heating tongs, or by means of a complex device suspended from the ceiling which, on account of its numerous cables and heating sleeves, resembled a chandelier.

For the client this procedure was a protracted, intimidating, and often painful ordeal. Contemporary accounts describe it as a "frightening procedure." The bizarre appearance of the apparatus hovering over the client's head was compared to "a mind-control device" from a science-fiction film. The risks were considerable and ever-present. The glowing heating elements, which operated in immediate proximity to the scalp, frequently led to severe burns and blisters. Not infrequently the hair was literally singed by the extreme heat and aggressive chemistry, broke off at the root, or was permanently damaged. The heavy rollers also exerted a strong pull on the hair roots, which made the treatment additionally unpleasant. Despite these dangers, Nessler's invention was a sensation, for it fulfilled, for the first time, the dream of a curl that lasted for weeks and months.

1.3 The Technological Bottleneck: The Bob and the Limits of the Spiral Winding

While Nessler's hot wave was a technical revolution, in the 1920s it ran up against an insurmountable limit that was not technical but a matter of fashion. The "Golden Twenties" brought with it a cultural upheaval that manifested itself most clearly in women's fashion. Women discarded corsets, wore shorter skirts, and cut their hair. The short haircut — whether as the bob (Bubikopf) or the even shorter "shingle cut" — became the symbol of the modern, emancipated woman.

This radical change in fashion created an acute technological problem. Nessler's spiral winding had been designed for the long hair of the Wilhelmine era. Its working principle — winding the hair from root to tip — was completely unsuitable for the new short hairstyles. With short hair it was physically impossible to wind the strands multiple times around the perpendicularly standing rollers. Moreover, the technique could not, as a matter of principle, wave the first four centimetres of hair at the root — something less noticeable with long hair, but which with a bob yielded an unacceptable result.

The hairdressing craft thus found itself in a paradoxical situation: an extremely popular hairstyle had prevailed for which the most advanced and most profitable technology in the industry was unusable. The demand for waved short hairstyles was immense, yet there was no method to produce them permanently. This unmet need generated enormous pressure to innovate. The relationship between 1920s fashion and permanent-wave technology was therefore not merely one of mutual influence, but one of causal necessity. The bob did not merely popularise a new kind of permanent wave; it created a technological vacuum that rendered the existing method obsolete. The invention that could fill this gap had to be not only better — it had to function in a fundamentally different way.

Part II: The Cosmopolitan Coiffeur: The Making of an Inventor

Josef Mayer's groundbreaking invention was no accident, but the result of an extraordinary career that led him through the most important metropolises of Europe. His comprehensive international training, his linguistic fluency, and his experience with a demanding, multicultural clientele gave him a unique perspective on his craft. He was a prototype of the cosmopolitan innovator, whose invention arose not from isolated genius but from the synthesis of techniques, standards, and customer needs that he had observed across the entire continent.

2.1 Apprenticeship and Journeyman Years in a Pan-European Environment

Josef Mayer was born on 6 February 1881 in Parabuc in the Hungarian Bácska, a region whose affiliation was redefined by the political upheavals after the First World War. The experience of being first a Hungarian, then — through territorial cession — a Yugoslav, and finally, from 1919, a Czechoslovak citizen, shaped his life and his international orientation.

His professional career began in his father's business, but his thirst for knowledge soon drove him out into the world. His apprenticeship and journeyman years were no chance journey, but a targeted programme for acquiring specialist knowledge and linguistic ability. From 1898 to 1900 he worked in Budapest, where he attended a trade school and already won first prizes. His path then led him to Vienna, the pulsating heart of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. In contrast to many of his contemporaries, whose training was often local or nationally bounded, Mayer's training was deliberately and exceptionally international. His journey took him further to the important port and trading cities of Fiume [Rijeka] and Trieste, and from there to Italy, where he worked in Milan and Genoa. Each of these stations broadened his horizon and confronted him with different techniques and customer expectations. The decisive impulses, however, he received in the fashion capitals of Nice, Paris, and London. This comprehensive training, which spanned the German-speaking, Italian, French, and British spheres of influence, gave him a unique "system overview" of his craft that was lacking among his contemporaries.

2.2 The Karlsbad Hub and the International Clientele

In 1901 Mayer came to Karlsbad (Karlovy Vary) for the first time, one of the most elegant and international spa towns in Europe. His employer at the time, Mr. Mzick, who had himself worked for many years in England, recognised Mayer's potential and encouraged him to test and refine his abilities in the world. After his formative years abroad, Mayer returned to Karlsbad in 1904 and took over a small gentlemen's hairdressing business.

Karlsbad was the ideal location for an ambitious hairdresser with international experience. The town attracted a wealthy and sophisticated clientele from all over Europe and beyond. Mayer's salon quickly developed from a small business with two gentlemen's stations into a flourishing ladies' salon with five employees. A large part of his clientele consisted of Slavs — in particular Russians and Poles — which prompted him to learn Russian alongside French. This daily engagement with a diverse international clientele confronted him with the widest variety of hair types, fashion wishes, and quality expectations. He was able to observe the universal problems of existing techniques such as the Nessler wave at first hand, and understood the need for a solution that was applicable not just locally, but internationally.

2.3 Recognition and the Mindset of a "Professor"

Mayer's extraordinary talent did not go unnoticed. During his time in Nice, another melting pot of European aristocracy, he attained the highest professional recognition. In 1903, as the only foreigner, he won the gold medal (Médaille d'Or) at an important professional competition. This success was more than just an award; it was a confirmation of his mastery at the international level.

The high point of his formal recognition came on 2 April 1906, when the renowned École Professionnelle des Chambre Syndicale Cuvrière des Coiffeurs des Nice conferred upon him the Diplôme de Professeur. This title is of decisive significance, for it reflects a mindset that goes beyond that of a mere craftsman. A "Professor" masters not only the practice but also the theory, the technique, and the pedagogy of his field. This academic and systematic approach shaped his later work as an inventor and trainer.

As early as 1909 he began his systematic studies to improve the permanent wave — a process that would stretch over 15 years. This long and intensive research phase, which culminated in the decisive breakthrough in the winter of 1923/24, underlines the complexity of the technical challenges and Mayer's tireless, scientific approach. His cosmopolitan education had given him the tools to identify a universal problem, and his professorial mindset enabled him to develop a systematic and elegant solution.

Part III: A Revolution in Winding: The Deconstruction of the Flat Winding

In October 1924, at the federal congress of hair-shapers [Haarformer] in Dresden, Josef Mayer presented the solution to the technological dead end into which the short haircut had led the hairdressing craft: the flat winding. This invention was more than just a new technique; it was a fundamentally new philosophy of winding, oriented toward the client's comfort, the safety of the application, and a more natural aesthetic result. Mayer's innovation can be understood as a fundamental shift from a machine-centred to a human-centred design. Whereas Nessler's apparatus was a powerful machine that the client had to endure, Mayer's system was an integrated process designed around the needs of the human being.

3.1 The Invention (1924): A New Philosophy of Winding

The core of Mayer's innovation lay in two decisive changes compared with the established spiral winding. First, he reversed the winding direction. Instead of winding the strand of hair from root to tip, as Nessler did, in the flat winding the hair was rolled up from the tip in the direction of the scalp. This method, also known as the Croquignole wrap, was the key to treating short hair. It made it possible to secure even short strands on a roller and to wave them right down to the scalp.

The second decisive innovation was the treatment of the hair as a flat strand, or as a band, instead of bundling it into a rope. Whereas the spiral winding produced a tight, spring-like curl, Mayer's method aimed to create a soft, natural wave that corresponded to the ideal of the time. This approach was the foundation for the name he later chose for his system: "Realistic."

3.2 The "Hair Waving Method" in the Patent (USRE18841)

The technical ingenuity and considered systematic character of the flat winding become clearest in Mayer's patent applications, such as US Patent RE18,841. The patent describes a detailed, multi-stage process that places safety and efficiency in the foreground:

• Preparation: The hair is divided into individual, flat strands ("flat strands").
• Protection of the scalp: A special clip is attached directly to the scalp at the base of the strand. This clip had a dual function: it served as an anchor for the winding and, more importantly, as a heat shield ("screen the head from the heater"). It prevented the hot rollers from touching the scalp and prevented hot steam from travelling along the strand to the skin. This was a direct response to the frequent burns of the Nessler method.
• Winding: The flat strand of hair is rolled spirally onto a tubular roller from the free ends in the direction of the scalp.
• Application of solution and insulation: The wound roller is wrapped in a cloth rag (flannel) soaked in permanent-wave fluid. This unit is then wrapped in wax paper, the ends of which are twisted to create a waterproof packet. This packet, often referred to as a "sachet," enclosed the moisture and the steam and ensured an even action of the chemicals. An outer layer of parchment paper provided additional protection.
• Heating: A sleeve-shaped electric heating device is slid over the insulated and prepared packet. The patent describes a flexible metallic holder that distributes the heat evenly, and emphasises that the heat must be sufficient to penetrate the protective coverings and effectively reshape the hair.

This systematic, modularised approach made the process not only safer but also faster and easier for the hairdresser to handle. The focus on protecting the client and simplifying the workflow shows the human-centred core of Mayer's design philosophy.

3.3 Comparative Analysis: Flat Winding vs. Spiral Winding

The superiority of the flat winding over the spiral winding is best seen through a direct comparison of the technical features and their practical effects. The following table summarises the decisive differences and makes clear why Mayer's invention constituted a revolution.

Where Nessler wound the hair from root to tip around perpendicular metal rods, Mayer rolled each flat strand from tip to scalp, lying the roller flat against the head and shielding the skin with a protective clip — eliminating the burns and painful pulling of the older method.

This comparative analysis shows that Josef Mayer did not merely solve a single problem. He rethought the entire process of the permanent wave and improved it in every decisive aspect: suitability for modern fashion, aesthetic result, client comfort, safety, and efficiency for the user. His invention was a holistic solution that drew the permanent wave out of the niche of a dangerous procedure and made it accessible to the mass market.

Part IV: From Karlsbad to the World: The "Mayer Realistic" System

Josef Mayer's genius was not confined to the technical invention of the flat winding. He also possessed a deep understanding that a groundbreaking technology can only succeed when it is accompanied by an equally innovative business model. He did not merely sell a device; he created a comprehensive, integrated system that encompassed branding, training, quality control, and the building of a professional community. Mayer was a pioneer of a "platform strategy" in the beauty industry, ensuring that his invention was not only sold but successfully applied, standardised, and adopted worldwide.

4.1 The Founding of "Mayer Realistic Karlsbad" (1927)

In order to commercialise his invention, Josef Mayer founded the company "Mayer Realistic Karlsbad" in 1927. The firm produced and distributed the equipment necessary for his method, including the special permanent-wave machines, hair dryers, and further accessories for hairdressers.

The choice of the name "Realistic" was a strategic move. Mayer deliberately chose this term to communicate clearly the central advantage of his invention — the production of a natural, realistic-looking wave. The name was internationally comprehensible and served as a strong brand promise that stood out against the often artificial-looking results of earlier methods. The company name derived directly from the advertising slogan "Realistic permanent waves" [Realistische Dauerwellen] and became a synonym for quality and modernity.

Mayer secured his system through worldwide patents and built up an international distribution network. He established commercial agencies in the most important metropolises of the world, including New York, Melbourne, London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. This global presence enabled him to spread his technology rapidly and to set an international standard.

4.2 The Inventor as Pedagogue: Creating a Global Standard

Mayer recognised early on that the success of his technology was inseparable from its correct application. A poorly executed "Realistic" wave would have damaged the reputation of his brand. Training therefore became a central pillar of his corporate strategy. In his salon in Karlsbad he established specialist courses for hairdressing masters and journeymen, which often lasted late into the night.

These night-time courses, with the salon brightly lit, became a local attraction. They drew the attention of the international spa guests, who acted as multipliers and carried the news of Mayer's revolutionary method back to their home countries. The training guaranteed a high level of quality and created a loyal community of users who trusted the "Realistic" system.

To promote his method further and to establish it as a global gold standard, Mayer organised international permanent-wave competitions in Karlsbad. These events were far more than mere marketing events. They served to "eliminate sources of error" through lectures and practical demonstrations, and to disseminate the best techniques. The competitions positioned Karlsbad as the worldwide centre of the art of the permanent wave, and Josef Mayer as its uncontested master.

4.3 Building a Professional Community

Mayer's vision went beyond purely commercial interests. He saw himself as part of a professional community and advocated for its welfare. He founded the "Association of the Mayer-Realistic Permanent-Wave Operators," an international club that encompassed hairdressers from 22 countries. This association served not only professional exchange but also a philanthropic purpose.

Mayer harboured the plan to build an international convalescent home for hairdressers in Gottesgab in the Ore Mountains, which was to stand at the disposal of colleagues regardless of their nationality or religion. He collected donations for this project on his business trips and often doubled the collected sums from his own pocket. This commitment shows his deep sense of responsibility toward his profession.

Through his technical, entrepreneurial, and social activities Josef Mayer attained worldwide renown. In professional circles he was respectfully and affectionately called simply "Mayer" — a sign of the immense recognition of his achievements. His comprehensive approach — the combination of a superior technology, a strong brand, a certified training programme, and an engaged professional community — created a self-contained "ecosystem." This secured him market dominance and cemented his legacy in a way that the mere sale of a device could never have achieved.

Part V: Legacy in a Time of Upheaval

Josef Mayer's life's work, which rested on internationalism, innovation, and the building of a global community, was caught up in the 1930s and 1940s in the maelstrom of Europe's destructive political forces. His story, and that of his company, mirror the tragic upheavals of the 20th century. The development of "Realistic" from an internationally oriented maker of luxury goods to a manufacturer of heavy-industrial plant is a microcosm of the economic and political development of Central Europe — from the cosmopolitanism of the interwar period, through the brutality of National Socialism, to the industrial reorientation of the post-war era.

5.1 The Internationalist in the Age of Nationalism

Josef Mayer's declared international and apolitical stance made him a target in the emerging National Socialism. His membership in the Odd Fellows Lodge, a humanitarian and apolitical organisation, as well as his close contacts with Czech professional associations and his international clientele, were held against him as suspicious. He was known to be "internationally minded" and to refrain "from all political activity," which made him many enemies in the increasingly radicalised climate.

The threats soon became concrete and life-threatening. He reported an attempted assassination by an SS man in his car, and direct intimidation by officials of the German Labour Front (DAF), who informed him he was "ripe to be handed over to the Gestapo." Finally, his life's work — the "Realistic" business — was confiscated in the course of the National Socialist policy of "Aryanisation" and forcible coordination [Gleichschaltung]. A "national administrator" [Nationalverwalter] was installed, who took over the business and forced the previous administrator to leave the enterprise immediately. Mayer's cosmopolitan vision, which rested on cross-border cooperation and professional exchange, was smashed by the totalitarian ideology of nationalism.

5.2 The Post-War Transformation of "Realistic"

After the Second World War and the loss of his company, the firm "Realistic" was radically restructured under new leadership. The production of hairdressing supplies was discontinued, and with it the original identity of the enterprise was extinguished. From 1946 the company struck out on an entirely new path and began the manufacture of electric industrial furnaces.

This unlikely but successful pivot was oriented to the economic necessities of the post-war period. The first furnaces were developed for the porcelain factories in the surroundings of Karlovy Vary, a region with a strong industrial tradition. In the following decades Realistic established itself as a leading manufacturer of industrial furnaces for the mechanical-engineering, ceramic, and glass industries — first in Czechoslovakia and later also in international export. The firm that once stood for elegant waves became a symbol of heavy industry — a development that reflects the economic priorities of the Eastern Bloc, which placed industrial production above consumer goods. Today Realistic a.s. is a modern industrial enterprise. The name "Realistic" is the sole remaining, almost ironic artefact that recalls the glamorous past and the ingenious hairdresser who once founded the company.

5.3 Final Assessment: The Imperishable Wave

Josef Mayer died on 5 January 1952 and found his final resting place in the forest cemetery [Waldfriedhof] in Darmstadt. His legacy is multifaceted and enduring.

First, he leaves behind a technological legacy. With the invention of the flat winding he perfected the permanent wave. He made it safe, comfortable, and adaptable to modern fashion. His method, or variations of it, became the worldwide standard and secured the permanent wave its cultural longevity.

Second, he leaves behind a professional legacy. Through his tireless commitment to training, quality standards, and the building of an international professional community, he lastingly raised the level and the prestige of the entire hairdressing profession.

Third, he leaves behind an entrepreneurial legacy. He impressively demonstrated how, around a single but transformative innovation, one can build a global brand and a comprehensive business and training platform.

The story of Josef Mayer is the striking testimony of a visionary inventor whose cosmopolitan spirit created an international enterprise, only to see it smashed by the destructive forces of nationalism and transformed beyond recognition. Yet while his company took a different path, his most important invention lives on. The "realistic wave" that he gave to the world has endured the times.

The patents

Mayer protected the system on both sides of the Atlantic. Each document below is the original filing — drawings, claims, and Mayer's own specification in its patent office.

United States

• US 1,619,794 — the flat-winding heater (1927).
• US 1,894,612 — the waving method & apparatus.
• US RE17,585 — reissue of an early core patent.
• US RE18,841 — reissue refining the method.

Europe

• GB 251,688 — United Kingdom (filed 1925; the patent that later became prior art against the U.S. method).
• FR 593,464 — France (filed 1925).
• BE 335,190 — Belgium (filed 1926).

These three are the documented members of the European family. Mayer's U.S. specifications also refer to an earlier German filing of April 1924, but its exact publication number has not yet been identified in the surviving records.